Untitled - 1341 Words

In The Medium Is the Message by Marshall McLuhan, he explores new media in its most original, basic and pure way as an object, furthermore, he use the idea of the medium itself carries the message rather than the message, furthermore, to analyze how new media influence in the society. At the end, McLuhan explain the role of broadcast television (as a new medium) and how television itself become a â€Å"fixed charge† in people’s day-to-day living which we simply cannot live without it. (Marshall McLuhan 1962, p.209) Base on Mcluhan’s notion of how a medium formed in the past, if the idea still apply to the mass communication media nowaday as the media themselves shape the society regardless of the content it carries, or there is a new relation†¦show more content†¦As the time goes by, the technology become cheaper and available to the general public, therefore more and more developers start to develop game to fulfill the need as an entertainment purpose. Another argument mentioned by Raymond Williams’s: The media are used by an order of society to manipulate others to further its own agenda. This position states that if a specific technology such as television did not exist, this higher hierarchy group would find another way to influence or control the masses. There was a time when all political groups support their own television station financially and there were only two to three channels on television. Due to the political group owns the television channel, the group have the control of the programs and the commercials, they repeatedly broadcast to emphasize their political need and achieve their political agendas, and then carry out those messages to the public during the election period. There are always political commercial right after a popular program, so the population been fed with all the positive side of the particular party. Nowadays, just the news channels alone, there is a wide variety to choose from that can be fulfill the needs of the society and even individuals. We have the privilege to choose different media for receiving the messages, and since we can choose from all kinds of media, we are no longer blinded by the messages. We are even allow to interact almost in real time, therefore,Show MoreRelatedUntitled and Advice to My Son, by Peter Meinke1122 Words   |  5 Pagespoem write about similar topics and also reflect the same stylistic characters among his or her poems. In Peter Meinke’s two poems, titled Untitled and Advice to my son, he created them both using a specific tone and the same subject to create different themes. Both of these poems also included some of the important elements of poetry. Peter’s poem Untitled is about a father, possibly Peter’s, who is writing this poem to his 10 year old son. This father is apologizing for all the hurt he has causedRead MoreAnalysis Of Untitled : Dock, The Work Of The Museum s Calendar731 Words   |  3 Pagesuntitled: dock, the latest work from British sculptor Phyllida Barlow, is also colossal and monumental in scale. The sculpture was commissioned by Tate Britain for its Duveen Gallery. The annual commission, sponsored by Sotheby’s, invites artists to make work in response to Tate’s collection of British art – bridging the gap between its historic and contemporary works. The commission is displayed every year from March to October. Tate Britain, part of England’s five gallery network of Tate spacesRead MoreEssay on Emily Dickinson: Untitled, Unregulated, and Unchained942 Words   |  4 PagesYou know her name. You’ve seen it following quoted lines of poetry; printed on greeting cards, cross-stitched and framed on your grandmother’s bathroom wall, and engraved into silver lockets. Regarded as one of the greatest American poets, you are no stranger to her work. You know her name. Say it. Emily Dickinson. And boy, was she a wierdo! †¦admittedly, most geniuses are. Emily Dickinson dedicated most of her privileged, reclusive life to her art. She employed a brilliance for lyricism, unconventionalRead MoreSatire is Used in the Portraits, Gin Lane, by William Hogarth and Untitled by Paul Kuczynsk648 Words   |  3 Pagesridicule to expose and criticize people’s stupidity or vices, particularly in the context of contemporary politics and other topical issues.† This literary device is portrayed heavily in both the illustrations â€Å"Gin Lane† by William Hogarth and in â€Å"Untitled† by Paul Kuczynski. â€Å"Gin Lane† is basically an illustration by William Hogarth that depicts life in the gin shops and shows the negative effects the drink had on the people of London. It shines a light on the horrible circumstances London was underRead MoreThe Untitled Mommy vs. Daddy Project: Gender Roles in Parenting925 Words   |  4 PagesThe bond between a paren t and child is unlike any other; however, the relationship between the daughter and her mother and between the daughter and her father can differ greatly, but usually contain the same key points. There are certain circumstances in which a daughter will go to her mom in preference to her father for particular advice, permissions, or compensation, and to her father over her mother for other reasons. For example, the parents’ punishments, advice, rules, and willingness to grantRead MoreA Close Look at Cindy Sherman’s, Untitled Film Stills and Nancy Burson’s, Beauty Composites578 Words   |  2 PagesCindy Sherman’s, Untitled Film Stills from 1977 are a series of 69 total photographs that were comprised in order to appear as though they were actually taken from film reels. Sherman appears in every one of these shots, and finds a way to create a common thread throughout each of them despite the fact that the characters that she is portraying are vastly dif ferent from one another. She accomplishes this by using similar clothing, lighting, setting, and compositions as those that would be foundRead MoreDanforth Art Museum Essay1543 Words   |  7 Pagesthese â€Å"portraits† are displayed in the New England Photography Biennial Exhibition at the Danforth Museum. Quinn’s 2010 works â€Å"Untitled 1† and â€Å"Untitled 5† prove that abandoned property is more than a mass of ruins; it is a record of the lives and stories of the souls that came and went. â€Å"Untitled 1† and Untitled 5† are 16 x 20 archival inkjet prints. The image â€Å"Untitled 1† shows the end of an empty hallway on the second floor of the house. A stair railing cuts through the center of the photographRead MoreWriting Assignment : Art By Cindy Sherman Essay914 Words   |  4 PagesSherman currently resides in New York with her husband Michael Auder and continues her work in her New York gallery (Cindy Sherman). While all of Sherman’s pieces evoke meaning Untitled #35, Untitled #6, and Untitled #3 descriptively speak the language of art. Cindy Sherman immortalizes a 1950s housewife in her piece Untitled #35. Although taken in the 1990s, Sherman, as the model, dresses in unkempt 50s style dress and apron casually posing in a room. By using herself as the model Sherman impliesRead MoreBarbara Kruger : Art History Archive1398 Words   |  6 PagesUniversity of California, Berkeley. She currently lives in New York and Los Angeles (â€Å"Biography†). In two of Kruger’s most prominent works, Untitled (I Shop Therefore I Am) (1987) and Untitled (Your Body Is a Battleground) (1989), she provokes her viewers by exploring postmodern themes of consumerism, feminism and individual autonomy. Barbara Kruger’s Untitled (I Shop Therefore I Am) (1987) is a photographic silkscreen on vinyl with a red border. It is a square piece featuring a black and white photographRead MoreThe Effects Of War And Immigration On Society1233 Words   |  5 PagesVija Celmins, for all of her statements about the meaning of her prints lying in their processes, has missed what can be called her unconscious influences. The true intent of her print piece Untitled (Web 3), cannot be garnered by her words alone but must be analyzed in order to uncover the childhood impact of war and immigration and how they have played a vital role in how she thinks about her printed works. By digging further into her work an underlying sense of a loss of control can be seen as

Fundamentals of Research Essay - 1596 Words

It has always been human nature to seek answers, find solutions to problems, observe, and bring awareness of discoveries. This process of inquiry has become more sophisticated and daunting throughout time. Nevertheless, curiosity and the need to progress remains the same. Many regard research as gathering information and using facts to support findings (Leedy Ormrod, 2010, pg. 1-2). Nevertheless, Leedy and Ormrod (2010), define research as a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information (data) in order to increase our understanding of a phenomenon about which we are interested or concerned (Leedy Ormond, 2010, pg. 2). Nunans definition (as cited in Mustafa, 2011), describes research as having a†¦show more content†¦Beyer (1985) describes critical thinking as evaluating information or arguments in terms of their accuracy and worth (as cited in Leedy Ormrod, 2010, p. 31). For example, music teachers face the challenge of managing large cla sses with a variety of learning and behavioral needs. Music teachers do not have the proper training or resources to support students with disabilities and depend on other curriculum to plan according to the various learning needs in the class. Another challenge is optimizing time to plan appropriate music activities for various grade levels, and musical events in a tight schedule. The research will be based on critical thinking skills that will focus on the goal, thus finding alternative methods to improve and adapt the music curriculum (Leedy Orrod, 2010, pg. 32). Nevertheless, to attain the goal, the researcher needs to have and design a plan. The origin of the subproblems lead to possible hypotheses. Using class size as an example, administrators have the freedom to create an instructional schedule in order to support the instructional needs of the school. Based on the state assessment, schools receive a grade, thus placing unnecessary stress on the students, teachers and administrators. As a result, schedules are designed around the core subjects giving language arts and math teachers’ instructional support and commonShow MoreRelatedFundamentals of Research Methodology1135 Words   |  5 PagesFundamentals of Research Methodology Monique Vann PSYCH 540 March 24, 2013 Jeanne Henry, Ph.D. Fundamentals of Research Methodology This paper will explore the fundamentals of research methodology in the Psychology field and discuss the importance of psychology. The answers to these questions are the basis for the theories that led to research. Research is the groundwork performed by Psychologists in order to answer questions about behavior and the mind. The outcome of the research willRead MoreFundamentals of Research Methodology1216 Words   |  5 PagesFundamentals of Research Methodology Paper Psychology is a discipline which seeks to study the thoughts and actions of men in a scientific way. Science is a marvelous development in the history of human thought. The American Heritage Dictionary defines psychology as the science dealing with the mind, mental and emotional processes, and the science of human behavior. It defines science as systemized knowledge derived from observations and study. Scientific study is a way of understandingRead MoreEvaluation Of A Research On The Fundamentals Of Good Research2113 Words   |  9 PagesResearch Paper At some point during their college careers, most students will have to face the challenge of learning how to do good research. As those who have done research before know, it is no easy task. But the amount of research note taking process should not intimidate students. Even those who research well do so only after many attempts and by practice. Many students come to college unprepared to know how to research simply because, they have not had the opportunity to do so correctly duringRead MoreAnimal Experimentation Is Fundamental For Medical Advancement And Cancer Research909 Words   |  4 Pagesnecessary for medical research. Where this agreement usually ends, however, is on the question of morality. Whereas some are convinced that it’s unethical and scientifically unnecessary, others maintain that it’s needed for medical progress. My stance on the subject is animal experimentation is fundamental for medical advancement and cancer research. An ample amount of human deaths are being avoided every single day due to the studies found through animal experimentation. Animal research has led to theRead MoreA Sustained Competitive Advantage Created by California Based Firm, Reasearch Affiliates744 Words   |  3 PagesResearch Affiliates (RA) is a California-based investment management firm that aims at creating a sustained competitive advantage in the investment industry mainly by developing innovative non-price-weighted indices through a clear focus on superior research. The specificities of this unique business model are outlined below, following the approach by Chesbrough . RA developed its â€Å"Fundamental Index (FI) methodology†, which supports the use of firm ´s fundamentals rather than their current, oftenRead MoreEssay on MBA detail course outline1314 Words   |  6 PagesManagement †¢ Principles of Management †¢ Principles of Management †¢ Research Methods †¢ Research Methods †¢ Research Methods †¢ Research Methods †¢ Organization Theory †¢ Organization Theory †¢ Financial Accounting †¢ Financial Accounting †¢ Project Management Fundamentals 2nd Quarter †¢ Project Management Fundamentals †¢ Project Management Fundamentals †¢ Project Management Fundamentals 4th Quarter †¢ Organizational Behavior – I †¢ Organizational BehaviorRead MoreExploring The Beliefs And Actions Of The Foreign Exchange ( Forex ) Market1728 Words   |  7 Pages1. Report summary 1.1. Research purpose This research was aim to discover the beliefs and actions of the trader in the foreign exchange (Forex) market, then adding to our knowledge about the microstructure of the Forex as well as trader’s view on exchange rate determination. Hence, it pointed out the divergence between economists’ and trader’s view. 1.2. Research method Authors used survey methodology with sample on UK-based foreign exchange dealers to collect analysis data. Specifically, 110Read MoreHeading : Fundamental Analysis And Analysis Essay772 Words   |  4 PagesHeading: Fundamental Analysis URL: http://www.avatrade.com/resources/fundamental-analysis Content Additions/Changes †¢ Add a â€Å"Softer† introduction; include statement that addresses AvaTrade, along with referring to the nature of the following â€Å"Guide†. †¢ Add {Fundamental Analysis Defined}, use â€Å"When doing fundamental analysis, a trader studies the overall state of the economy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  paragraph as a lead-in. †¢ Change â€Å"Why do Fundamental Analysis† to â€Å"Why conduct Fundamental Analysis† †¢ â€Å"Some of the world’sRead MoreSources Of Knowledge : Understanding Students And Their Behaviors And Achievements796 Words   |  4 Pagesauthority, logic, or research. Personal experience, intuition, traditions, and logic are valuable sources of knowledge, but many times cannot show enough evidence to support the theory. These sources of knowledge may not be valid or reliable for various reasons. Expert authorities on subjects are another valuable source of knowledge, but these experts can lead one to believe what they want you to believe, not necessarily the facts. The true source of knowledge is research – where studies involveRead MoreThe Expectation For Duration Of The Rhyme1484 Words   |  6 Pagesseparated 3.2 Fundamental frequency The expectation for the fundamental frequency was that this would be lower in the phrase-final position than in the phrase-medial position, due to declination. This was indeed the outcome of the tests. However, as the declination of fundamental frequency is a wide studied phenomenon, it was expected that the difference between fundamental frequency in phrase-final and phrase-medial position would be big. This was not the case. Graph 3: Mean fundamental frequency

10 Chemicals You Can Use to Turn Fire Green

Green is possibly the coolest color to turn flames. Its not a color you get from the fuel, so you have to add a chemical to get the effect. The color comes from the ion emission spectra, so you can use any of the chemicals that produce green in the analytical method known as the flame test. The most readily available compounds  are: boric acid (boron compounds), sold as a disinfectant and roach killerborax (boron compounds), sold as a laundry booster and home cleanercopper sulfate (copper(II) compounds), sold as a root killer and algicide However, other chemicals will make green flames: thallium compoundsantimony compoundsbarium compoundsmanganese (II) compoundsmolybdenum compoundsammonium compoundsphosphates moistened with sulfuric acid How to Get Green Fire If you add any of these chemicals to a fire, youll get green flames. The trouble is, there might be other chemicals in your fuel that can overpower the green, making it impossible to see. You can add copper compounds to wood fire and get a range of colors, including green. Most of the other colorants wont work with a campfire or fireplace fire because sodium in the fuel emits a bright yellow light that overpowers the green color. The best way to get green fire is to heat the chemicals in a blue gas flame or to add them to an alcohol-based fuel. In addition to gel fuels, you can use methanol, ethanol, and isopropanol. Safety Information None of these chemicals is edible and a few are toxic, so dont roast marshmallows, hot dogs, or other food over a green fire. Having said that, the boron and copper compounds are relatively safe in that they arent consumed by the fire, so they dont really add to the toxicity of any smoke, plus they are household chemicals that  can be washed down the drain. If you are using colorants on a camping trip or outdoors, be aware of the effects of the chemicals on the environment. High levels of boron compounds can be toxic to some plants. High levels of copper compounds can be harmful to invertebrates. These are properties that help make these chemicals useful in the home, but not so great for wild habitats. Use care with methanol (wood alcohol) and isopropanol (rubbing alcohol), since these fuels are absorbed through the skin and are toxic. Any alcohol on skin increases its permeability, so its best to avoid touching any solution of metal salts, even if the solvent is ethanol.

Resistance to Change - 2462 Words

Resisting Change Change is a natural process, it occurs every day whether it is recognized or not. Many factors both external an internal can create a need for change, these include: competition, technology, desire for growth, need to improve processes, and governmental regulations. It is the purpose of this paper to describe and discuss resistance to change as it relates to organizations today. I plan to utilize several scholarly references including the book â€Å"Managing Organizational Change† as written by Ian Palmer as this book provides insight into diverse aspect of change. I also plan to utilize Brian Palmers book Making Change Work as it looks at the human side of change management. Resistance in an organizational†¦show more content†¦There are many ssymptoms of active resistance which include being critical, finding fault, ridiculing, appealing to fear, and using facts selectively, blaming or accusing, sabotaging, intimidating or threatening, manipulating, distorting facts, blocking, undermining, starting rumors, and arguing (Palmer). These symptoms depending on the severity may or may not have long term affects on the change itself. If the change agent can identify and isolate the symptom there is a better chance of preventing failure of the change. There are two mental barriers which tend to undermine the acceptance of change initiatives that are interpreted as inconsistent with the existing organizational identity. First, passive resistance (for example, apathy or anxiety) occurs when managers exhort subordinates to implement a change without first clarifying the connection between the change and some aspect of the organizational identity. Second, active resistance occurs when a change is interpreted as directly in conflict with key elements of the organizational identity (Palmer). Effective management of employee resistance is important to the change agent because without a means to manage the change the resistance may prevent the change from succeeding. According to a Harvard Business Review articleShow MoreRelatedThe Resistance to Change988 Words   |  4 PagesAs a person one might find that we follow a specific routine on the day to day basis. Sudden changes to these routines feels weird and out of place. In William Faulkner’s â€Å"A Rose For Emily† based in a fictional town called Jefferson taking place during the twentieth century. The time period is indeed an important factor because southern tradition was above all of the highest importance. This short story gives the audience details of life during that time in which they followed the values of southernRead MoreResistance to Change1251 Words   |  6 PagesResistance to Change MGT380 - Managing Organizational Change July 30, 2012 Dr. David M. Piltz Resistance to Change Organizational change is a focus for Starbucks. The resistance to change needs to be a consideration for the company. Starbucks needs to focus on how to communicate the change in the organization and the attitudes that come with the change, whether it is positive or negative. Starbucks needs to establish strategies for managing the attitudes and the role of the presidentRead MoreResistance to Change1785 Words   |  8 Pagesmight resist change because of self-interest, misunderstanding and distrust, and a general intolerance for change. Outline the five techniques that companies can use to manage resistance to change that are described in your textbook and discuss using the refereed journal articles you have researched for this essay. | DATE DUE: DATE SUBMITTED: | LECTURER’S NAME:Anita | TUTORS NAME:Chitra | TUTORIAL GROUP/CLASS TIME:Tutorial 1 | How to Manage Resistance to Change in an Organization Read MoreResistance to Change7392 Words   |  30 PagesLeadership Organization Development Journal Emerald Article: Resistance to organizational change: the role of cognitive and affective processes Wayne H. Bovey, Andy Hede Article information: To cite this document: Wayne H. Bovey, Andy Hede, (2001),Resistance to organizational change: the role of cognitive and affective processes, Leadership Organization Development Journal, Vol. 22 Iss: 8 pp. 372 - 382 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/01437730110410099 DownloadedRead MoreResistance to Change4896 Words   |  20 PagesResistance to Change HR587-Managing Organizational Change Course Project Instructor: Kathleen Milburn Keller Graduate School of Management 06/16/2010 Nga Le Table of Contents Executive Summary 2 Literature Review 3 Force-Field Analysis Diagram 4 Decoding Resistance to Change 6 Working with Resistance 7 Key Elements to Effective Organizational Training 7 Successful Project Management 9 Managers as Resistors 10 Managing Resistance 12 Default Option Approach 12 ChangeRead MoreResistance to Change2093 Words   |  9 Pages1.0 INTRODUCTION Change they say is the only constant thing. It is however a big wonder why many people still resist change even in large institutions. Resistance to change has therefore had a negative connotation because it portrays people avoiding the inevitable and not wanting to improve or face challenges. The essence of this paper is to peel the outward negative layer of resistance to change and dig deeper to reveal how it can be managed and transformed into a positive thing which may availRead MoreResistance Of Change And Change Management1666 Words   |  7 PagesResistance to Change NASA had a firm hierarchy and this brought about a lot of resistance to change from people. NASA could have gotten more of the people involved in the changes. I find that by getting people involved and having some key people or champions to support the change, there is less resistance. People want to feel involved and a part of decisions, especially if it impacts them directly. When it comes to successful change management, get people involved earlier, which will contributeRead MoreOvercoming Resistance to Change1671 Words   |  7 PagesOvercoming Resistance to Change BUS 610 Organizational Behavior Overcoming Resistance Resistance is a normal and a perfectly natural reaction to change. Each person has their own amount they can take, but the reasons behind why employees resist in the first place may be surprising.   According to these experts, the fear of moving into an unknown future state creates anxiety and stress, even if the current state is painful (Eroke, 2013). A complete understanding of the unique ways thatRead MoreResistance to Change Essay1113 Words   |  5 PagesResistance to Change Organizational change is the movement of an organization away from its present state and toward some desired future state to increase its effectiveness. (George et al, pg 567) Organizations need to change in the modern day market place. New technologies, globalization, foreign trade, investments and constantly shifting marketplaces demand the need for flexibility, adaptation, and change. The downside to this is in an organizations employees. People by nature resist changeRead MoreAn Individuals Resistance to Change1057 Words   |  5 PagesAn Individuals Resistance to Change Throughout the years the world has experience change. In the last five years we have seen drastic change within our country. In 2007 we elected our first African American as president. The technology world has change, almost every electronic we use now are touch screens. Everything outside of the work place has been adapting to change, but can the employees in the workplace adapting to change. Introduction Organizations has become more popular in the workplace

Martin Luther King Jr. Free Essays

Martin Luther King Jr. Free Essays Martin Luther King was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia. When he was grown, he wrote that he came from a family â€Å"where love was central and where lovely relationships were ever present† (Colaiaco, 1984). He could never remember his parents fighting, and he was surrounded by people with deep religious beliefs and a profound sense of human dignity. We will write a custom essay sample on Martin Luther King Jr. or any similar topic only for you Order Now His father was pastor of Ebenezer Baptist Church and his mother had been a teacher. Her father had been pastor of Ebenezer before his death. Martin had an older sister; Christine, and a younger brother, A.D. Martin grew up during the Depression, a time when many were without jobs and had to struggle to make a living. His family wasn’t wealthy, but they were comfortable and had enough to eat. Discussion and Background Hans Luther sent his son to the University of Effort to maintain the dream of him becoming a lawyer. By 1505, Luther had completed the Bachelor s program and received his Master s degree. He was on his way to becoming the lawyer that his father had always dreamed of, until June 1505. On his way back to the University after visiting his family, Martin was caught in a thunderstorm and a flash of lightning hit him. In the open field where he laid, he promised God he would join a religious order. (Leonard, 2002) When Martin s friends heard of his promise, they were shocked. His father was angered that he had spent a large amount of money to send his son to school, and his son was not going to be able to support the family. For the rest of his brief life, he inspired people to fight for their rights using nonviolent means (Lincoln, 2001). King paid a great price for his vision. From 1956 until his death in 1968, he was arrested, stabbed, stoned, and finally assassinated. And although he loved his family, he was often away from home, traveling tirelessly, from town to town, state to state, and even to Europe, Africa, and Asia to share his dream of peace and love. Conclusion In 1964, Martin Luther King, Jr., won the Nobel Peace Prize. This important award is given almost every year to the person, people, or organization most responsible for promoting peace. King, at age thirty – five, was the youngest person ever to receive the prize. In December, he set off with family and friends to Oslo, Norway, where the award ceremony look place. On his return, King was shower with honors. The city of Atlanta, where he lived, gave him a dinner. Together blacks and whites sang the civil rights movement’s anthem, â€Å"We Shall Overcome† (Lincoln, 2001). Only a few years before, King had been arrested in Atlanta for trying to eat al an all-white lunch counter. References Colaiaco, James A. (1984).†The American Dream Unfulfilled: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the ‘Letter from the Birmingham Jail’.† Phylon. Leonard, Cowries, W. (2002) Martin Luther Jr. Leader of the Reformation. New York: Fredrick A. Pager. Lincoln, C. Eric, (2001). Martin Luther King, Jr.: A Profile. American Century Series. New York: Hill and Wang. P 156-159 How to cite Martin Luther King Jr., Essay examples Martin Luther King Jr. Free Essays Introduction The author of the letter, Martin Luther King Jr. was the most well-known fighter for the rights of the Afro-Americans in the USA. Moreover, this man was one of the most educated among the social and political activists contemporary to him, that’s why he could lead the discussion with the white politicians and religious leaders, and persuade them in the rightness of his ideas. We will write a custom essay sample on Martin Luther King Jr. or any similar topic only for you Order Now Discussion and Background In order to prove his viewpoint, Martin Luther brings the examples from the religious sources, such as the New and Old Testament, from the history of the American democracy, and from the world history. For example, in order to explain and support his vision of the just and unjust laws Martin Luther provides the words of the middle-age catholic religious leader and mystic St. Thomas Aquinas, and when the need for the civil disobedience needs to be proved, he brings the example of the people who disobeyed the command to give all the Jews to the Nazi government both in Germany and occupied countries.   To support this claim he also recalled the early Christians who refused to obey the orders of Nebuchadnezzar, as those were against their moral and religious beliefs. (Franklin, 1990) In order to clear himself from the accusations in the extremism, Martin Luther recalled the well-known phrases and sayings by the famous people. In his writing Martin Luther talked about priests and ministers, clearly displaying that all of them were sometimes capable of the heroic words and deeds, and of the cowardice or malice pretense. (Erskine, 1994) To reach this goal, the writer brings the examples that support his claims both from the social and religious life, puts them near in the text and illustrates the same things with them. He also justifies his followers’ actions, which are of political and social significance, by the religious principles and values found in the Bible. In his writing Martin Luther King expresses deep concern for the fate of the American democracy which shatters its authority by acting against the principles its leaders have always been proclaiming. He claims that the separation of the church and state, that has been happening for quite a long time now, affects badly the moral condition of the politicians together with the ordinary citizens, as the first propose and accept the laws that are out of tune with both the religious principles and the moral values most human beings share and try to follow, while the second do not protest against it, accepting all the unjust decisions of those, who are in power at the moment. (King, 1983) Conclusion As stated in the beginning, Letter from Birmingham Jail is considered to be the classical example of the political writing, the one which made its way to the textbooks. I hope that after reading this essay you will understand the causes for that. Martin Luther King touched lots of vital questions in his letter, and he did it with such skill that people read it and benefit from it to the present time. References Erskine, Noel Leo. (1994). King Among the Theologians. Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press. Franklin, Robert Michael. (1990). Liberating Visions: Human Fulfillment and Social Justice in African-American Thought. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. King, Coretta Scott, ed. (1983). The Words of Martin Luther King, Jr. New York: Newmarket Press. How to cite Martin Luther King Jr., Essay examples Martin Luther King Jr. Free Essays Martin Luther King Jr. Role model defined by dictianry. com is a person whose behavior, example, or success is or can be emulated by others. We will write a custom essay sample on Martin Luther King Jr. or any similar topic only for you Order Now Role models are those who possess the qualities that we would like to have and those who affect us in a way that makes us want to be better people. They teach us to take leadership and follow our goals that are emulated off them. My role model is Martin Luther King Jr. because he is hardworking, a leader, and humble. Martin Luther King Jr. as hardworking due to the fact that he led protest marches despite the critics and the government, he was arrested for fighting for equal rights, he continued past the death threats, and remained so determined that he even put his life up for the cause. What makes him so inspiring is that it would have been much easier for Dr. King to fight with violence but he didn’t, he fought with non-violence i. e. protests. Also he not only fought for black rights but he fought for the rights of the oppressed. On top of this he was a pastor that preached God’s message and he raised a family. He was so determined at fighting for equal rights that he got arrested 28 times and that did not deter him. His actions were recognized by the Nobel Peace Prize which just shows how much Martin Luther King Jr. did. Martin Luther King Jr. was also a leader. He would stir thousands of people with his emotional speeches. His most well-known speech â€Å"I had a dream† just exemplifies how he could fight his way for freedom. Also he organized and created multiple organizations for equal rights. Most leaders direct their attention toward their own group, but King wanted freedom and equality for all. His words of wisdom opened many eyes and shaped the nation. Dr. King was a revolutionary because he did something about the hatred and violence which seemed normal. The reason today black and whites can walk together is because of Martin Luther King Jr. Lastly Martin Luther King Jr. was humble. He gave a speech about how humanity needs to be humble and those words he spoke were his actions. Regardless of how much fame and attention Martin Luther King Jr. got he would continue to work on his mission and not get caught up in the media. Also his non-violence methods were adopted from Gandhi showing he respected others and that he knew people were smarter than him. He was so humble that, at one time, lived in poor conditions and was abused even though he has an average lifestyle. This is why I believe the perfect role model is Martin Luther King Jr. We should try to emulate him because of his leadership, his humbleness, and his dedication. I, personally, can say that throughout my day I will try to strive to be like Dr. King and one day hope to make a change on society like him. How to cite Martin Luther King Jr., Papers

Psyschology Study On Drinking Essay Paper Example For Students

Psyschology Study On Drinking Essay Paper AbstractIn response to the need for research that incorporates multiple aspects of theory into a testable framework, this study attempted to replicate and extend the results of Cooper, Russell, Skinner, Frone, and Mudar (1992). A modified stressor vulnerability model of stress-related drinking was tested in a homogeneous sample of 65 male and female undergraduate student drinkers. Total weekly consumption ofalcohol was used as the criterion measure, whereas family history of alcoholism (Adapted SMAST: Sher Descutner, 1986), alcohol outcome expectancies/valences (CEOA: Fromme, Stroot, Kaplan, 1993), perceived stress (PSS: Cohen, Kamarck, Mermelstein, 1983), and coping dispositions (COPE: Carver, Scheier, Weintraub, 1989) were used as the predictor variables. The proposed modified model postulates that expectancies play a proximal mediating role in stress-related drinking, whereas gender, family history of alcoholism, and coping all play a distal moderating role. Hierarchical multi ple regression procedures were then performed to evaluate the model. The results failed to support the hypothesized model. Specifically, expectancies emerged as a distal rather than proximal predictor of stress-related drinking, and family history of alcoholism did not moderate stress-related drinking. In contrast, gender and coping styles emerged as the most powerful predictors in the model. Despite the shortcomings of the proposed model, the present results offer an alternative interpretation as to what constitutes the stressor vulnerability model of stress-related drinking.IntroductionStress as a Causal Factor in Drinking One of the common stereotypes about the effects of alcohol involves the drug’s capacity to act as astress antagonist. Conger (1956) has proposed a theory, known as the tension reduction hypothesis (TRH) of drinking, to support this notion. Essentially the theory holds that alcohol’s sedative action on the central nervous system serves to reduce ten sion, and because tension reduction is reinforcing, people drinkto escape it (Marlatt Rohsenow, 1980). Strong evidence to support the validity of the theory comesfrom epidemiological findings which indicate that the prevalence of anxiety disorders in alcoholics rangesfrom 16 to 37%, compared to a rate of only 4-5% in the general population (Welte, 1985). Notwithstanding, there seems to be a subset of people for whom the predictions of the TRH do nothold. For instance, in a study conducted by Conway, Vickers, Ward, and Rahe (1981) it was found that theconsumption of alcohol among Navy officers during periods of high job demands was actually lower than theconsumption during low-demand periods. In addition, other studies (i.e., Mayfield, 1968; Mendlson, Ladou, Soloman, 1964) have shown that some drinkers actually consider alcohol as a tension generator ratherthan a tension reducer. Overall, when taking into account these conflicting findings, it seems prudent to find some middleground. The solution to this problem than is a modified version of the TRH, specifying the conditions underwhich stress will lead to an increase in drinking. Moderating and Mediating Factors in Stress Induced DrinkingIn addition to stress, several other variables have been shown to be crucial in determining an individual’sdrinking behavior. These variables include gender of drinker (gender), coping behavior of drinker (coping),and alcohol outcome expectancies of drinker (expectancies). In the following discussion, the importance ofeach of these variables to drinking will be considered first, followed by an evaluation of these as potentialmoderators or mediators of stress in drinking. 1Differential Gender Drinking BehaviorIt has been repeatedly demonstrated that significant differences exist between the drinking patterns ofmen and women (Hilton, 1988). In a comprehensive survey of US drinking habits conducted by the USNational Center for Health Statistics in 1988, significant gender differences were found in three areas aspointed out by Dawson and Archer (1992). The first significant difference pertained to the number of maleand fem ale current drinkers. Roughly 64% of all men were current drinkers in comparison to 41% of allwomen. The second and third significant differences concerned the quantity of alcohol consumed. Menwere more likely to (a) consume alcohol on a daily basis and (b) be classified as heavy drinkers. Men’s dailyaverage of ethanol intake (17.5 grams per day) was almost twice as high as women’s (8.9 grams per day). Even when an adjustment for body weight was made (females require less ethanol than males to achieve asimilar increase in blood alcohol level), men’s consumption was still 53% greater than women’s. Withregards to drinking classification, males were classified substantially more often than females as heavydrinkers (i.e. the number of males who drank five or more drinks a day was 88% greater than thecorresponding number of females). Furthermore, as the classification measures became stricter so did thedisparity between male and female heavy drinkers increase (i.e., the ratio of male to female heavy drinkersincreased by a factor of 3 as the definition of heavy drinker was changed from five drinks or more a day tonine drinks or more a day). Gender as a Moderating Factor of StressTo understand why men and women drink differently requires an understanding of the prevailingsocialization practices (Dohrenwend Dohrenwend, 1976; Horwitz White, 1987). According to thissociological view, â€Å"women have been socialized to internalize distress, whereas men have been socialized toexternalize distress† (Cooper, Russell, Skinner, Frone, Mudar, 1992; P. 140). Therefore, women tend tocope with stress by utilizing personal (internal) devices such as emotion, rather than impersonal (external)devices such as alcohol, which are used more often by men. In addition, men and women also holddifferential expectations about the effects of drinking. Several studies (i.e. Abrams Wilson, 1979; Sutker,Allain, Brantly, Randall, 1982; Wilson Abrams, 1977) have shown that â€Å"although pharmacologicaleffects appear to be similarly stress reducing for both sexes, the belief that alcohol has been consumed mayactually increase distress a mong women† (Cooper et al. , 1992; P. 140). Therefore, it seems plausible thatfemales actually expect to experience some form of distress from drinking as opposed to males’ expectationto experience tension reduction from drinking (Rohsenow, 1983). Differential Coping Styles in DrinkingConsiderable evidence has been accumulated in support of the notion that certain methods of coping aremore likely to be associated with problem drinking than others (Moos, Finney, Chan, 1981). This hasled to the development of social learning theory which postulates that abusive drinkers differ from relativelyhealthy drinkers in (a) their capacity to effectively cope with stressors and (b) in their beliefs about drinking(Abrams Niaura, 1987). In general, two types of coping responses have been shown to predominate in most situations (Folkman Lazarus, 1980). The first type, problem-focused coping (also known as approach coping), is directed ateither solving the presenting problem or altering the source of the stress (Carver, Scheier, Weintraub1989). The second type, emotion-focused coping (also known as avoidance coping ), attempts to reduce theunpleasant emotional feelings which accompany the stressor (Carver et al. , 1989). Even though peopleusually use both methods in response to a given stressor, the former type will tend to predominate whenpeople feel that the situation is changeable, whereas the latter type will tend to predominate when peopleappraise the situation as unchangeable (Folkman Lazarus, 1980). People who predominantly resort to avoidance coping have been shown to display pathological drinkingbehavior much more than those who utilize approach coping (Cooper, Russell, George, 1988; Cooper etal. , 1992). Those who typically resort to avoidance coping (a group which consists of up to 25% of alldrinkers), report that they do so in order to regulate negative emotions (Cahalan, Cisin, Crossley, 1969;Mullford Miller, 1963; Polich Orvis, 1979). The strongest evidence to support this contentioncomes from studies which have investigated post-treatment relapse in alcoholics. In three such studies(Marlatt, Gordon, 1979; Moos et al. , 1981; Moos, Finney, Gamble, 1982), it was found thatindividuals were more likely to relapse in situations which elicited unpleasant emotional states. Coping as a Moderating Factor of StressThe key to understanding the differential impact of avoidance and approach coping on drinking lies inthe availability of an effective coping response to a given stressor (Cooper et al. , 1992). By definition,people who utilize approach coping mechanisms to deal with their stress, engage in concrete problemsolving which serves to actively reduce the amount of stress. By contrast, people who rely on avoidancecoping may manage to reduce their distress, but they tend to do so by distracting themselves from the stress. Yanomamo: People of the Rainforest EssayWeekly Alcohol Consumption. Subjects were given a chart which contained the days of the week. Foreach day they were instructed to indicate the number of standard alcoholic drinks and the amount of time itwould take to consume these drinks in a typical week. A standard alcohol drink was defined as either aregular size can/bottle of beer, 1.5 ounce shot of liquor, or a 5 ounce glass of wine. Subjects who drank lessthan once a month were instructed to skip this section. The total number of drinks in one week was summedand used as the dependent variable. Adapted Short Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test (Adapted SMAST). The adapted SMAST (Sher Descutner, 1986) is a 13 item self-report questionnaire designed to measure family history of alcoholism. Specifically, the questionnaire assesses the extent of an individual’s mother’s and father’s alcohol abuse. Assessment is based on a two point scale consisting of 0=no and 1=yes. For the purpose of the presentstudy only 10 items were used, and the mother/father answer categories were extended to biological mother/father and step or adoptive mother/father. Comprehensive Effects of Alcohol (CEOA). The CEOA (Fromme, Stroot, Kaplan, 1993) is a 38 itemself-report questionnaire designed to assess alcohol outcome expectancies and their subjective valence. It iscomposed of seven expectancy scales, four positive (sociability, tension-reduction, liquid-courage, andsexuality) and three negative (cognitive-behavioral impairment, risk and aggression, and self perception). Expectancy assessment is based on a four point scale from 1=disagree to 4=agree. The valence of theseexpectancies is assessed on a five point scale from 1=bad to 5=good. Both items and instructions werecarefully worded to ensure that the elicited expectancies were neither dose-specific, nor situation specific. Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). The PSS (Cohen, Kamarck, Mermelstein, 1983) is a 14 item self-reportquestionnaire designed to assess the degree to which situations in one’s life are appraised as stressful. Anequal number of 7 positive and 7 negative statements make up the questionnaire. Assessment is based on afive point scale from 0=never to 4=very often. Scores are obtained by reversing the scores on the sevenpositive items (i.e., 0=4, 1=3, 2=2, etc.), and then summing across all 14 items. COPE. The COPE (Carver et al., 1989) is a 53 item self-report questionnaire designed to assessindividual coping dispositions. The questionnaire is comprised of 14 scales which are categorized into threecoping styles: Problem-Focused Coping (Active coping, Planning, Suppression of competing activities,Seeking social support for instrumental reasons, and Restraint coping), Emotion-Focused Coping(Acceptance, Seeking social support for emotional reasons, Positive reinterpretation, Turning to religion,and Focus on and venting of emotion), and Less than Useful Coping (Denial, Behavioral Disengagement,and Mental Disengagement). For the purpose of the present study the Alcohol-drug disengagement scalewas excluded from these categories, and was treated as a separate category called Drinking to Cope. Assessment is based on a four point scale from1=I usually don’t do this at all to 4=I usually do this a lot. Both items and instructions were worded such that dispositional , rather than situational, styles of copingwere assessed. ProcedureAll participants were recruited from undergraduate psychology courses at York University. Thequestionnaire was administered in a classroom setting. Participants completed the questionnaire in agroup format of mixed sex ranging in size from 10 to 30 individuals. Informed consent was obtainedfrom all participants, and a phone number was provided in case any concerns arose. The completequestionnaire required approximately 40 minutes to administer. Respondents were compensated for theirtime by being entered in a lottery with a 1 in 50 chance of winning $ 50.00.ResultsCorrelational AnalysesTable 1 presents zero-order correlations, computed for all relevant study variables. Conceptuallyvariables may be grouped into one of five categories: weekly drinking (variable 1), perceived stress(variable 2), family history of alcoholism (variable 3), coping variables (Variables 4-7), and expectancyvariables (variables 8-21). Examining the pattern of correlations between these variables sugge sts severalconclusions. First, family history of alcoholism was neither significantly correlated with perceived stress nor withweekly drinking, suggesting that family history of alcoholism is not important in stress-induced drinking. Second, several coping variables were significantly correlated with either weekly drinking and/orperceived stress. Specifically, drinking to cope was significantly positively correlated with both weeklydrinking (r = .420) and perceived stress (r = .310), less useful coping was significantly positively correlated(r = .674) with stress, and problem focused coping was significantly negatively correlated (r = -.327) withweekly drinking. These findings suggest that coping variables play an important role in stress-relateddrinking. Finally, only one expectancy variable, the valence expectancy for cognitive and behavioral impairment,was significantly correlated (r = .340) with weekly drinking, but not with perceived stress. However, severalexpectancy variables were significantly positively correlated (.357 r .517) with drinking to cope. Thesefindings suggest that expectancies are more likely be a distal, rather than a proximal predictor of stress-related drinking. Estimating the ModelHierarchical multiple regression analyses were employed to test the model depicted in Figure 1. Table 2contains summary statistics for the stepwise regression used to identify the predictor variables of weeklydrinking. As can be seen from Table 2, gender emerged as the most important predictor variable accountingfor over 28% of the variance. The coping variables of drinking to cope and problem-focused drinking werealso significant, and accounted for an additional 12% and 8% of the variance, respectively. Further multipleregression analyses were used to determine which variables predicted drinking to cope, and problem-focusedcoping, respectively. Table 3 shows that the expectancy for risk accounted for over 26% of the variance inpredicting drinking to cope, with the expectancy for tension and perceived stress accounting for anadditional 16%. Table 4 shows that emotion-focused coping accounted for over 34% of the variance inpredicting problem-focused drinking, with the expectancy valence for self perception accounting for anadditional 8%. Figure 2 summarizes the direct effects estimated in the foregoing series of multipleregression analyses. Table 1.Zero-Order Correlations Among Relevant Study Variables______________________________________________________________________________________Measure 1234567891. Weekly Drinking—-.143-.072-.327* -.232 -.206 .420**.016.2402. Perceived Stress— .001.198.138.674** .310* -.069 -.0743. Family History of Alcoholism —-.186-.111 -.002-.211-.003 -.1284. Problem-Focused Coping—.491** .170-.044-.132 -.1125. Emotion-Focused Coping —.166.062.111.1076. Less Useful Coping—.223-.073-.0177. Drinking to Cope—.234 .412**Alcohol Expectancy Outcomes8. Sociability—.2629. Tension Reduction –10. Liquid Courage11. Sexuality12. Cognitive Behavioral Impairment13. Risk Aggression14. Self PerceptionAlcohol Expectancy Valence15. Sociability16. Tension Reduction17. Liquid Courage18. Sexuality19. Cognitive Behavioral Impairment20. Risk Aggression21. Self Perception* p .01; ** p .001Table 1. (Continued) Zero-Order Correlations Among Relevant S tudy Variables______________________________________________________________________________________ Measure10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 181. Weekly Drinking.116-.008-.141.173-.037 -.083.185-.062.1942. Perceived Stress-.041-.069.133.213.039.044.196 .058 -.0383. Family History of Alcoholism -.052.018-.082-.121.069.040.089 .028.0074. Problem-Focused Coping.035.012.175.141.218 -.097-.075.052 -.0355. Emotion-Focused Coping.044.295*.218.154.151 -.230 -.084-.053 -.0556. Less Useful Coping-.178-.006.238.066.059.016.096-.025.0727. Drinking to Cope.371* .225-.017 .517** -.009 .066.357*.115.178Alcohol Expectancy Outcomes8. Sociability .697** .488** -.120 .433** -.160 .569** .469** .174.2899. Tension Reduction .233.263 .041.180.006 .202.282.132.22210. Liquid Courage —.509**.032 .622** .046 .433** .436** .381* .24511. Sexuality—.260 .522** .276 .118.161-.025.14912. Cognitive Behavioral Impairment —.221.354* -.227 -.241-.171 -.06113. Risk Aggression— .236 .158.304*.106 - .00114. Self Perception—-.335* -.175-.089 -.247Alcohol Expectancy Valence15. Sociability— .510** .499**.490**16. Tension Reduction —.412**.409**17. Liquid Courage — .541**18. Sexuality—19. Cognitive Behavioral Impairment20. Risk Aggression21. Self Perception* p .01; ** p .001Table 1. (Continued) Zero-Order Correlations Among Relevant Study Variables______________________________________________________________________________________Measure 1920211. Weekly Drinking .340* .026.1972. Perceived Stress-.164.065 -.1393. Family History of Alcoholism -.229.045.0094. Problem-Focused Coping -.289 -.053 -.357*5. Emotion-focused Coping -.122 -.123 -.1356. Less Useful Coping-.262 -.054 -.3227. Drinking to Cope .119.166-.054Alcohol Expectancy Outcomes8. Sociability .141.170.1359. Tension Reduction.196.166.01510. Liquid Courage.123.278.13811. Sexuality -.271 -.152 -.16012. Cognitive Behavioral Impairment -.396**-.217-.09713. Risk Aggression-.038 -.019-.138 14. Self Perception-.363*-.274-.220Alcohol Expectancy Valence15. Sociability .249 .482** .11316. Tension Reduction.150 .227-.13117. Liquid Courage.375*.717** .21918. Sexuality.162 .515** .18119. Cognitive Behavioral Impairment—.544**.539**20. Risk Aggression—.517**21. Self Perception –* p .01; ** p

Education free essay sample

Sure Start Childrens Centre-Family based centres who not only provide early years education but offer help and support to parents too. Day Nursery-These are independently run businesses. Childminder-You would normally take your child to the childminders’ home. They can look after upto 6 children but no more than 3 of these can be under the age of 5. Nannie/Live in carer-Would look after your children in your home. There are four main types of State schools which are funded by local government. They all follow the National Curriculum and are monitored by Oftsed. Community School- Community schools are run by the local government, which employs school staff, owns the land and buildings, and sets the entrance criteria that decide which children are eligible for a place. Foundation and Trust schools- Foundation schools are run by a governing body which employs the staff and sets the entrance criteria. Land and buildings are owned either by the governing body or by a charitable foundation. Programmes are evaluated to answer questions and concerns of various parties. The public want to know whether the curriculum implemented has achieved its aims and objectives; teachers want to know whether what they are doing in the classroom is effective; and the developer or planner wants to know how to improve the curriculum product. †¢ McNeil (1977) states that â€Å"curriculum evaluation is an attempt to throw light on two questions: Do planned learning opportunities, programmes, courses and activities as developed and organised actually produce desired results? How can the curriculum offerings best be improved? (p. 134). †¢ Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) define curriculum evaluation as â€Å"a process or cluster of processes that people perform in order to gather data that will enable them to decide whether to accept, change, or eliminate something- the curriculum in general or an educational textbook in particular† (p. 320). †¢ Worthen and Sanders (1987) define curriculum evaluation as â€Å"the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness, or value of a programme, product, project, process, objective, or curriculum† (p. 22-23). Gay (1985) argues that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to identify its weaknesses and strengths as well as problems encountered in implementation; to improve the curriculum development process; to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and the returns on finance allocated. †¢ Oliva (1988) defined curriculum evaluation as the process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives. The primary decision alternatives to consider based upon the evaluation results are: to maintain the curriculum as is; to modify the curriculum; or to eliminate the curriculum. Evaluation is a disciplined inquiry to determine the worth of things. ‘Things’ may include programmes, procedures or objects. Generally, research and evaluation are different even though similar data collection tools may be used. The three dimensions on which they may differ are: †¢ First, evaluation need not have as its objective the generation of knowledge. Evaluation is applied while research tends to be basic. †¢ Second, evaluation presumably, produces information that is used to make decisions or forms the basis of policy. Evaluation yields information that has immediate use while research need not. †¢ Third, evaluation is a judgement of worth. Evaluation result in value judgements while research need not and some would say should not. As mentioned earlier, evaluation is the process of determining the significance or worth of programmes or procedures. Scriven (1967) differentiated evaluation as formative evaluation and summative evaluation. However, they have come to mean different things to different people, but in this chapter, Scriven’s original definition will be used. 8. 2. Formative evaluation: The term formative indicates that data is gathered during the formation or development of the curriculum so that revisions to it can be made. Formative evaluation may include determining who needs the programme (eg. secondary school students), how great is the need (eg. students need to be taught ICT skills to keep pace with expansion of technology) and how to meet the need (eg. introduce a sub ject on ICT compulsory for all secondary schools students). In education, the aim of formative evaluation is usually to obtain information to improve a programme. In formative evaluation, experts would evaluate the match between the instructional strategies and materials used, and the learning outcomes or what it aims to achieve. For example, it is possible that in a curriculum plan the learning outcomes and the learning activities do no match. You want students to develop critical thinking skills but there are no learning activities which provide opportunities for students to practice critical thinking. Formative evaluation by experts is useful before full-scale implementation of the programme. Review by experts of the curriculum plan may provide useful information for modifying or revising selected strategies. In formative evaluation learners may be included to review the materials to determine if they can use the new materials. For example, so they have the relevant prerequisites and are they motivated to learn. From these formative reviews, problems may be discovered. For example, in curriculum document may contain spelling errors, confusing sequence of content, inappropriate examples or illustrations. The feedback obtained could be used to revise and improve instruction or whether or not to adopt the programme before full implementation. 8. 2. 2 Summative evaluation The term summative indicates that data is collected at the end of the implementation of the curriculum programme. Summative evaluation can occur just after new course materials have been implemented in full (i. e. evaluate the effectiveness of the programme), or several months to years after the materials have been implemented in full. It is important to specify what questions you want answered by the evaluation and what decisions will be made as a result of the evaluation. You may want to know if learners achieved the objectives or whether the programme produced the desired outcomes. For example, the use of a specific simulation software in the teaching of geography enhanced the decision making skills of learners. These outcomes can be determined through formal assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and examinations. Also of concern is whether the innovation was cost-effective. Was the innovation efficient in terms of time to completion? Were there any unexpected outcomes? Besides, quantitative data to determine how well students met specified objectives, data could also include qualitative interviews, direct observations, and document analyses How should you go about evaluating curriculum? Several experts have proposed different models describing how and what should be involved in evaluating a curriculum. Models are useful because they help you define the parameters of an evaluation, what concepts to study and the procedures to be used to extract important data. Numerous evaluation models have been proposed but three models are discussed here. 8. 3. 1 Context, Input, Process, Product Model (CIPP Model) Daniel L. Stufflebeam (1971), who chaired the Phi Delta Kappa National Study Committee on Evaluation, introduced a widely cited model of evaluation known as the CIPP (context, input, process and product) model. The approach when applied to education aims to determine if a particular educational effort has resulted in a positive change in school, college, university or training organisation. A major aspect of the Stufflebeam’s model is centred on decision making or an act of making up one’s mind about the programme introduced. For evaluations to be done correctly and aid in the decision making process, curriculum evaluators have to: †¢ first delineate what is to be evaluated and determine what information that has to be collected (eg. how effective has the new science programme has been in enhancing the scientific thinking skills of children in the primary grades) †¢ second is to obtain or collect the information using selected techniques and methods (eg. nterview teachers, collect test scores of students); †¢ third is to provide or make available the information (in the form of tables, graphs) to interested parties. To decide whether to maintain, modify or eliminate the new curriculum or programme, information is obtained by conducting the following 4 types of evaluation: context, input, process and product. Stufflebeam’s model of evaluation relies on both formative and summative evaluation to determine the overall effectiveness a curriculum programme (see Figure 8. 1). Evaluation is required at all levels of the programme implemented.   Formative and summative evaluation in the CIPP Model a) Context Evaluation (What needs to be done and in what context)? This is the most basic kind of evaluation with the purpose of providing a rationale for the objectives. The evaluator defines the environment in which the curriculum is implemented which could be a classroom, school or training department. The evaluator determines needs that were not met and reasons why the needs are not being met. Also identified are the shortcomings and problems in the organisation under review (eg. sizable proportion of students in secondary schools are unable to read at the desired level, the ratio of students to computers is large, a sizable proportion of science teachers are not proficient to teach in English). Goals and objectives are specified on the basis of context evaluation. In other words, the evaluator determines the background in which the innovations are being implemented. The techniques of data collection would include observation of conditions in the school, background statistics of teachers and interviews with players involve in implementation of the curriculum. ) Input Evaluation (How should it be done? ) is that evaluation the purpose of which is to provide information for determining how to utilise resources to achieve objectives of the curriculum. The resources of the school and various designs for carrying out the curriculum are considered. At this stage the evaluator decides on procedures to be used. Unfortunately, methods for input evaluation are lacking in education. The prevalent practices include committee deliberations, appeal to the professional literature, the employment of consultants and pilot experimental projects. ) Process Evaluation (Is it being done? ) is the provision of periodic feedback while the curriculum is being implemented. d) Product Evaluation (Did it succeed? ) or outcomes of the initiative. Data is collected to determine whether the curriculum managed to accomplish it set out achieve (eg. to what extent students have developed a more positive attitudes towards science). Product evaluation involves measuring the achievement of objectives, interpreting the data and providing with information that will enable them to decide whether to continue, terminate or modify the new curriculum. For example, product evaluation might reveal that students have become more interested in science and are more positive towards the subject after introduction of the new science curriculum. Based on this findings the decision may be made to implement the programme throughout the country. 8. 4. 2 Case Study: Evaluation of a Programme on Technology Integration in Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools The integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in teaching and learning is growing rapidly in many countries. The use of the internet and other computer software in teaching science, mathematics and social sciences is more widespread today. To evaluate the effectiveness of such a programme using the CIPP model would involve examining the following: Context: Examine the environment in which technology is used in teaching and learning †¢ How did the real environment compare to the ideal? (eg. The programme required five computers in each classroom, but there were only two computer labs of 40 units each for 1000 students) †¢ What problems are hampering success of technology integration? eg. technology breakdowns, not all schools had internet access) †¢ About 50% of teachers do not have basic computer skills Input: Examine what resources are put into technology integration (Identify the educational strategies most likely to achieve the desired result) †¢ Is the content selected for using technology right? †¢ Have we used the right combination of media? (internet, video-clips, etc) Process: Assess how well the implementation works (Uncovers implementation issues) †¢ Did technology integration run smoothly? †¢ Were there technology problems? Were teachers able to integrate technology in their lessons as planned? †¢ What are the areas of curriculum in which most students experienced difficulty? Product: Addresses outcomes of the learning (Gather information on the results of the educational intervention to interpret its worth and merit) †¢ Did the learners learn using technology? How do you know? †¢ Does technology integration enhance higher order thinking? 8. 4. 3 Stake’s Countenance Model The model proposed by Robert Stake (1967) suggests three phases of curriculum evaluation: the antecedent phase, the transaction phase and the outcome phase. The antecedent phase includes conditions existing prior to instruction that may relate to outcomes. The transaction phase constitutes the process of instruction while the outcome phase relates to the effects of the programme. Stake emphasises two operations; descriptions and judgements. Descriptions are divided according to whether they refer to what was intended or what actually was observed. Judgements are separated according to whether they refer to standards used in arriving at the judgements or to the actual judgements. Antecedents Transactions Outcomes Figure 8. 3 Stake’s Countenance Model 8. 3. 2 Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model Elliot Eisner, a well known art educator argued that learning was too complex to be broken down to a list of objectives and measured quantitatively to determine whether it has taken place. He argued that the teaching of small manageable pieces of information prohibits students from putting the pieces back together and applying them to new situations. As long as we evaluate students based on the small bits of information students we will only learn small bits of information. Eisner contends that evaluation has and will always drive the curriculum. If we want students to be able to solve problems and think critically then we must evaluate problem solving and critical thinking, skills which cannot be learned by rote practice. So, to evaluate a programme we must make an attempt to capture the richness and complexity of classroom events. He proposed the Connoisseurship Model in which he claimed that a knowledgeable evaluator can determine whether a curriculum programme has been successful, using a combination of skills and experience. The word ‘connoisseurship’ comes from the Latin word cognoscere, meaning to know. For example, to be a connoisseur of food, paintings or films, you must have knowledge about and experience with different types of food, paintings or films before you are able to criticise. To be a food critic, you must be a connoisseur of different kinds of foods. To be a critic, you must be aware and appreciate the subtle differences in the phenomenon you are examining. In other words, the curriculum evaluator must seek to be an educational critic.